The idea that Patroclus and Achilles were lovers is quite old. Many Greco-Roman authors read their relationship as a romantic one—it was a common and accepted interpretation in the ancient world. There is a lot of support for their relationship in the text of the Iliad itself, though Homer never makes it explicit. That sense of physical devastation spoke deeply to me of a true and total intimacy between the two men. Where does it come from, and after all of your research, do you believe it?
Our earliest account of it is by a Roman author, almost a millennium after the Iliad and the Odyssey were first composed. Since the Iliad and Odyssey were my primary inspiration, and since their interpretation seemed more realistic, this was the version I chose to follow. There are a number of fun myths about the heel, once that story became popular. The most famous one is that, in trying to make him immortal, his mother, the goddess Thetis, dipped him in the river Styx.
The place where she held him—his heel—was the only place not made invulnerable. Every time I have told this story to my middle school students, they erupt into chaos:. Nearby, the major port town Volos is a wonderful place to visit and, given its excellent location, could very well have been a good Phthian settlement in antiquity.
Next up would be the island of Scyros, where the goddess Thetis hid her son Achilles from the war, disguising him as a woman. Scyros is in the middle of the Aegean, the most southern of the Sporades island cluster. If you want the full Achilles experience, cross-dressing is a must. This is where the Greek fleet gathered before setting off to Troy. Now, back to Aulis. After joining up with the fleet, Achilles and Patroclus would have made their way to Troy, stopping several times along the way.
If you take the southern route, you can drop by Lesbos, where the famous poetess Sappho whom Plato named the tenth muse , lived and wrote. Farther north is the island of Lemnos, which was infamous in ancient mythology as the home of the venomous snake that crippled the hero Philoctetes. Watch where you step! One can easily envision a growing tumor as an Achilles — aggressive and apparently invincible.
The problem with using this metaphor is that Achilles only had one single vulnerable heel. Most researchers who work with cancer cells know that there are many different mechanisms by which cancer growth can be slowed down.
There is no single vulnerable pathway that can stop all cancer progression. Therefore, when researchers use this expression, they probably just like to convey the image of the powerful Achilles being brought to his knees by a single arrow. They do not want to claim that they have found the ultimate weapon to fight cancer.
However, this metaphor inadvertently does imply that the described method is the only way to arrest the tumor. This is not only a gross over-simplification, but plain wrong. Someone who is not familiar with the complexities of cancer biology and reads a press release containing this metaphor may take this to mean that the sole vulnerability of cancer has been identified.
Mythology and literature can be very inspiring for scientists and it is tempting to use powerful literary or mythological metaphors when communicating science, but one also needs to think about what these metaphors truly represent.
Especially metaphors that oversimplify scientific findings or convey a false sense of certainty should be used avoided. When I think about research, two other Greek legends come to mind: The legend of Sisyphus and the Odyssey. Every day, Sisyphus rolled a rock up a mountain and then had to watch how it would roll back down again. This was his punishment decreed by the Greek gods. It reminds me of a lot of experiments that we scientists perform. When we feel that we are getting close solving a scientific problem we sometimes realize that we have to start all over again.
Odysseus did not know if and when he would ever reach his destination, and this is how many of us conduct our research. They were reports of cancer patients who described how they had undergone numerous different cancer treatments, often with little improvement.
I realize that it is easier to market scientific ideas with a simplistic Achilles metaphor than to point out that science is long-winded and at times disorienting journey, similar to the Odyssey. But if we do want to use metaphors, we should probably use ones that appropriately convey the complexity and beauty of science. The views expressed are those of the author s and are not necessarily those of Scientific American.
The tendon has no blood vessels of its own sheath; the paratenon, a sheer, gossamer layer of connective tissue matrix fortified with capillaries, helps nourish the tendon. The story of Achilles is one of the most important legends in Greek mythology. The ancient Greeks believed the Trojan War was a historical event, but most of the information comes from The Iliad and The Odyssey , attributed without full certainty to Homer.
The surrounding myths describe Homer as a blind poet who played lyre and recited poems. He lived in the 8th and 7th centuries BC, 4 or 5 centuries after the Trojan War. In addition, a search was conducted of history books that address Achilles and the time in which he lived.
Several texts ,11,12 covered the historical period or the epoch in which Achilles lived. Biological warfare. Bacteria have always existed but probably were not deliberately used as a biological weapon. Could these bacteria get into a wound and cause tetanus?
The tetanus agent develops toxin only in wounds lacking oxygen anaerobic conditions. A tetanus agent can be found in horsehair, so contact with the wound would not have been impossible. Botulinum toxin is found in rotten meat and canned food anaerobic conditions. In ancient Greece, food included meat, fish, and olives. It is highly unlikely that the tip of the arrow was made of lead, so lead poisoning can be eliminated as a possibility. In those days, shields and weapons were made of bronze.
In addition, lead is not a factor in acute poisoning because it has a cumulative effect. Pain and stress. Another potential cause of death could be thyrotoxic storm because of the pain and stress.
Achilles tendon injury is a very common injury in professional athletes 14 ; warriors in the time of the Trojan War were surely in the same top physical shape and accustomed to the same athletic prowess.
Thus, no clear connection exists in the literature between such an injury and thyrotoxic storm. An immobilized Achilles might have feared falling into enemy hands. A wound near the triceps tendon is right beneath the skin, insufficiently protected, and exposed to mechanical influence. This area is poorly vascularized and any injury, defect, or lack of skin on the heel may lead to infection and a chronic wound that does not heal for weeks or months.
Even a closed injury of the Achilles tendon requires rest 6 to 8 weeks , and typically weeks of immobilization and rehabilitation. Struck by Paris, Achilles was crippled and angry, presumably felt severe pain, and could not run or walk. Were pain and loss of mobility enough cause for suicide for a war hero? During the war, Achilles led not only the Myrmidons, but also often all of the Achaean forces, which included Spartan tribes, who must have influenced Achilles.
Sparta, famous for its military force and civil discipline, completely focused on military training and excellence.
Spartans managed to compensate for their paucity of numbers, which was their main disadvantage, by focusing on perfect discipline. Spartan warriors always wore red to cover the blood, if injured. For them, leaving the battlefield was never an option. Therefore, Spartans and other warriors in ancient Greece would have respected a warrior injured in battled who committed suicide. Suicide was not only accepted among warriors, it was, in a way, expected. As a hero among heroes, Achilles could choose his fate — either a long and inglorious life or a short and glorious one.
Therefore, the possibility that Achilles committed suicide is not far-fetched. Further conjecture. Could Achilles have lived as a helpless man with a cane?
One might suppose that if Achilles survived his injury which may be true , he would have hoped the wound would heal quickly and he could resume his warrior ways. However, during the Trojan War, all wounds seemed to become deadly or heal slowly chronic. Wounds rarely healed per primam intentionem. According to Herodotus 5th century BC , the Trojan War may have never happened if the king of the Teucrians had not visited Greece with the hope of healing his wound.
The prophetess told him only the person who injured him Achilles could cure him. When this came to pass, the king, out of gratitude, told the Greeks how to find Troy. Perhaps Achilles hoped the same fate would await his debilitating wound.
But what if a cure seemed never to come? Each time Achilles stepped on the foot, he would be reminded he was no longer invincible — that he was vulnerable and incapable of a full recovery. For the Greek people, Achilles was dead the moment he stopped being a warrior, because he could no longer lead the army. Perhaps he did not want the people to see him limping, to pity him. He might have secluded himself far away from people, to die alone with a chronic wound. Based on what is known of the injury, Achilles probably had a chronic wound with skin and paratenon defect, devitalized tendon tissue, bleeding, granulation tissue, and repeated infections.
Each time he stepped on the foot, he would be reminded he was no longer invincible. One cannot be certain how or how quickly had the end come. For the Greek people, Achilles was dead the moment he lost the ability to fight.
The myth of the hero Achilles is still very much alive and fraught with questions. Did Achilles die immediately after the arrow pierced his heel and then bleed out? Or did he live, abandoned and lonely, with a chronic wound because he was no longer a capable warrior? There is reason to believe the latter, because the literature does not show any patient who has bled out and died due to an injury of the Achilles tendon. Please address correspondence to: Vesna S.
The Iliad. Available at: classics. Accessed May 3, General Encyclopedia of the Yugoslav. Zagreb, Republic of Croatia: Lexicographical Institute.
0コメント